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....In the early 1990s, young film director
Milcho Manchevski, born in Macedonia and educated in America, revisited
his native country after years of absence. He felt something pervasively
tense in the atmosphere of the early post-Yugoslav years, a sensation
of something enormous and fearsome which was about to strike. He resolved
to make a movie about this foreboding and to communicate to others the
strong apprehension that makes one's blood to ache.2 This is how the beautiful
Before the Rain (1994) came about.
....Most Western viewers responded to the
film with a straightforward admiration. To them, I was told, the film
was of 'educational' value, since it helped in understanding the absurd
logic of the Balkan conflict. It was also a stoic prophecy of the things
to come.
My own reaction to the film was not as clear-cut, however. Its atmosphere
and style fascinated me, but still, something was wrong. As an expatriate,
equally concerned with the impending trouble in the Balkans, I just could
not take the fatalism at face value.
....Even though director Manchevski rejected
the idea that all Balkan nations are doomed to live through the violent
nightmare of ethnic war, this was the dominant Western reading of his
film. By uncritically continuing the line of traditional representation
of the Balkans as a mystic stronghold of stubborn and belligerent people,
Before the Rain continued an existing Balkan trend of voluntary self-exoticism.
The picture effectively contributed to the perception of Macedonia as
a deceptively quiet but potentially explosive powder keg.
....Nonetheless, the film managed to show
remarkably well to those in the Balkans who were willing to listen what
was wrong with them, and thus it had a therapeutic effect. I will look
at Before the Rain and its prophecy in the light of current events in
the Balkans.
....Before
the Rain is a singular film, and cannot be seen as a typical work of Balkan
or Macedonian cinema. Had the director depended solely on domestic finance
and subsidies, I doubt it that such film would be made in Macedonia, or
in any other of the Balkan countries. Its financing is a tri-partite European
one (France, the UK, and Macedonia) with the participation of international
funding bodies, and the people involved in the film are as cosmopolitan
as they come, starting with writer and director Manchevski himself. The
Paris-based producer, Cedomir Kolar, is of Yugoslav background and has
since worked on co-productions with Burkina Faso (Idrissa Ouedraogo's
Kini and Adams, 1997), Kyrgyzstan (Aktan Abdykalykov's The Adopted Son,
1998), and on a Holocaust feature directed by a Romanian (Radu Mihaileanu's
Train of Life, 1998). The cinematographer Manuel Teran was responsible
for the dynamically shot AIDS biopic Savage Nights (1992). The initially
recruited DP, Iranian-born Darius Khondji, has shot the French cult movies
Delicatessen (1991) and The City of Lost Children (1995), and the internationally
acclaimed Se7en (1995), Stealing Beauty (1996) and Evita (1996). Labina
Mitevska (Zamira) later had supporting roles in Michael Winterbottom's
politically correct blockbuster Welcome to Sarajevo (1997) and in his
British-based I Want You (1998). She lives in England today. French actor
Gregoire Colin, the young monk Kiril, was seen in Agnieszka Holland's
Olivier, Olivier (1992) and since has appeared in a range of European
productions. Well-known within his native Yugoslavia, in the early 1990s
Rade Serbedzija (Alexandar), at odds with the nationalist regimes in Serbia
and Croatia, gradually became a permanent presence in the supporting cast
of films made by international directors - from Nicholas Roeg's Two Deaths
(1995) and Gregor Nicholas's New Zealand immigrant tale Broken English
(1996) through Francesco Rosi's Holocaust drama The Truce (1996) and Stanley
Kubrick's Eyes Wide Shut (1999), to pure Hollywood output such as Mighty
Joe Young (1999) and Stigmata (1999). Unlike other Balkan films that rarely
make it beyond the festival circuit, the film was widely distributed in
the West in 35 mm and on video. All this taken into consideration, Before
the Rain is not a product of Balkan cinema but rather a work of transnational
filmmaking at its best.
....Taking Sides
....The cosmopolitan photographer of Before
the Rain returns to his native village after eighteen years of absence
to find the ancient enmities stronger than ever. He is above irrational
ethnic rivalries and opposes the violence which he sees perpetuated by
the members of his own extended family. In his outright rejection of the
violence, he helps the Albanian girl escape the rage of the men who chase
her. This act, coupled with the protagonist's worldly ideas of humanist
reconciliation, cost him his life, and he is killed by family members
whose militant stance he refuses to take. The first lesson: one cannot
remain neutral, there is no middle ground; one has to be either on the
one side, or on the other. The second lesson: the pacifist intellectual
ends up taking sides against one's own.
....The compulsory taking sides was one of
the most difficult experiences that the former Yugoslavs had to live through.
Just as in the famous animated allegory in Canadian Norman McLaren's Neighbors
(1952): as soon as a fence line is drawn between neighboring houses, the
neighbors' earlier friendship turns into an intolerant rivalry; one can
only be either on one side or on the other, each crossing of the line,
and later on each look across the line, is a good enough reason for a
fight. Initially insignificant, the hostility grows into an all-consuming
passion, and in the end it is impossible to avoid becoming embroiled in
the conflict on the one side or the other.
....No matter how unwillingly, everybody
in Yugoslavia was to undergo an imposed re-identification - from the inclusive
concept of 'Yugoslav,' which was cultivated for decades but now abandoned
overnight people had to switch to a restrictive concept of belonging and
confine themselves to a clear-cut ethnic identity. But was everybody ready
to take sides? Did everybody want to? How about those of mixed background
who had to choose between two inherent ethnicities? What about those who
simply resented the rigid logic of 'identity politics'? To many, the forced
taking of sides resulted in disillusionment with the meaning of commitment.
Those who did not want to cave in to the nationalist hysteria had only
one remaining choice - to side against their own ethnic group. Only such
an act would reject the mass madness of nationalism. It seemed the only
way to avoid succumbing to the dominance of ethnic rivalries and to preserve
the individual's right of self-determination. Take the case of Croatian
film director Lordan Zafranovic, who left Croatia and settled in Prague
to be able to complete and release his Decline of the Century (1994),
a controversial indictment of the Nazi inclinations of some of his fellow
Croats. Or writer Dubravka Ugresic, a vocal critic of Croatian nationalism.
Or, take the case of those Serbs who chose to stay in besieged Sarajevo
and be exposed on a daily basis to the shelling by what can be described
as their 'own people' from the surrounding hills.
....With Before the Rain, Manchevski also
sided against his 'own.' But he managed to show remarkably well why he
did not approve of their ways and what was wrong with them. His protagonist
comes back to Macedonia haunted by the memory of his own ordeal in 'taking
sides.' Alexandar has witnessed the death of an innocent man; but it is
a death which he has inflicted, albeit inadvertently. Alexandar has lost
peace of mind and keeps repeating remorsefully: 'I took sides, I killed.'
So when he comes back to Macedonia, it is not just for a visit; he returns
carrying a superior consciousness of the devastation that rages nearby.
He comes prepared to take stance against his own people, if needed. And
it becomes necessary even sooner than one would think.
....Approximately at the same time as Manchevski,
another intellectual ended up taking sides against 'one's own' people,
this time in Greek Macedonia. Expatriate anthropologist Anastasia Karakasidou
published her ethnographic research which consistently described how the
processes of rigorous national consolidation throughout the century had
transformed the multicultural region into an ethnically homogenous one.
Karakasidou brought in extensive evidence showing that nation-building
mechanisms had often involved coerced re-making of ethnicities, intolerance
to otherness, and pressures to suppress multi-ethnic ancestors and genealogies
in favor of a uniform Greek identity. She sided against the national ideology
which 'imposes its constructs of the present onto the developments of
the past'(Karakasidou 1997: 237).
....Karakasidou's work was received with
hostility in Greece; her taking sides against 'one's own' was not tolerated.
Manchevski's work, on the contrary, was celebrated in Macedonia; his critical
stance was seen as a chance to re-define the meaning of 'one's own.' Was
it because Manchevski articulate siding against one's own was so clearly
meant to prevent? Or were the Macedonians better prepared to listen?
....Teleology of Conflict
....In discussing the historical film as
a corrective to 'real history,' Robert Rosenstone distinguishes two main
approaches (Rosenstone 1995). The explicit approach is dictated by the
political and social concerns of the time the film is made, while the
implicit one pursues the creation of a cinematic text which is then judged
by historical criteria. If we apply this framework to recent films about
the Balkans, we would easily classify most of them as following the explicit
approach as they are often made in response to the immediate concern about
the conflict in the 1990s. The stories told in these films, however, vastly
depend on what ending point has been chosen for it is the ending that
determines what is used in the beginning and in the middle.
....Most scrutiny of Balkan history is done
with the aim of finding the roots of today's conflict and explaining the
'bloody demise of Yugoslavia.' The undertaking is teleological by default
and makes it almost impossible to resist the temptation and to abstain
from putative speculation. To make its point, Michael Benson's documentary
Predictions of Fire (1994), for example, endowed an innocuous Yugoslav
fire safety animation from the 1960s with the symbolic meaning of clairvoyancy.
Looking at Montenegrin Vlatko Gilic's short In Continuo (1971), about
the appalling ritualistic violence in a slaughterhouse, a film scholar
interpreted the blood-soaked imagery and the suggestive title of the film
as a nightmarish vision of the violence that was to come to Yugoslavia
twenty years later, without taking note that a similar inference could
declare George Franju's Blood of the Beasts (1949), an equally violent
and shattering documentary on a slaughterhouse, as a prophesy for the
Algerian war.3 Yet in other cases, literary scholars traced back today's
violence to the wealth of violent scenes found in Njegos's romantic folk
poem The Mountain Wreath (1847), a deduction equivalent to explaining
the Nazi extremities with the macabre aspects in Brothers Grimm's fairy
tales.4
....These undertakings are premised on the
belief that there is a direct causal link between past visions and the
present-day state of things. In such endeavors, however, one inevitably
makes provisional choices about which visions from the past would best
fulfil the need for an explanation of today's events. If it is not about
history but about the use of historical remembrance, is a distinction
which is rarely explicitly acknowledged.
....Catering to the explanatory needs of
the moment, many documentaries end up as nothing more than projects of
an 'instant history' type. The teleological approach to history becomes
a decisive factor in decisions as to what is recycled for use in the reconstitution
of the historical backdrop to today's events, and what is laid to rest.
'Ancient enmities' are reiterated and supplied with appropriate images,
thus authenticating their status as real factors influencing today's outcomes.
Scenes of the Belgrade TV feature production Battle of Kosovo (1989) depicting
the dramatic and violent clash between Ottoman and Slav forces at the
famous battlefield, were used, for example, by the British Channel Four
news as a background image for their daily piece-to-camera reports on
the Kosovo crisis 1998, thus providing a clash-of-civilizations-type visual
reference, even though such an interpretation was not directly present
in the commentary.
....Films made at a later point, when the
story had developed in one of the many possible ways, and needed quick
explanation and a new causal linkage with the past, brought into consideration
facts and footage that were deemed useless at earlier points, the complex
picture of the past thus flexibly adjusting to the changing 'telos.' The
footage of earlier unrest in Kosovo, for example, was only occasionally
used until 1998.
....But doesn't the persistent reference
to past conflicts make the new ones look inevitable, as though they have
just been waiting to come about? Hasn't all this body of works resulted
in the perception of war no longer as an aberration but as a norm for
the Balkans?
....These questions become particularly important
in regard to Macedonia where the trouble is not an actual one but only
a projection. Since the early 1990s, Macedonia was extensively discussed
in the scenarios of journalists and political analysts as the real 'powder
keg,' from where uncontrollable violence could spill all over. Presumptuous
freelancers who traveled to Macedonia in search of stories could not help
expressing surprise at the peaceful and even sleepy atmosphere and could
not interpret it as anything but deceptive. In addition, there was the
long record of violence and terrorism associated with the innumerable
Macedonian uprisings, conspiracies, kidnappings and other violent disputes.
In anticipation of a new wave of violence, preventive peacekeeping units
were stationed in Macedonia in 1993.
....In 1999 the tensions are still contained
and the apocalypse has not yet happened. Nevertheless, most of the commentary
on Macedonia in the West is an anticipatory one - if there isn't a war
yet, it is around the corner. The text displayed on the cover of a documentary
called What about Macedonia? (1994) tells us that the reason for making
the film was fear 'that the ethnic bloodshed and human rights violations
now taking place in neighboring Bosnia and Croatia may spread to Macedonia
and lead to a new world war.' According to the promotional materials of
another documentary, suggestively entitled Macedonia: The Next Bosnia?
(1995), the film sets out to explore the present-day state of things with
the conviction that 'Macedonia is set to follow the disastrous path of
Bosnia, and that civil war in Macedonia would almost certainly embroil
neighboring countries.' The film contains 'secretly' shot footage of ethnic
tensions, interpreted as a 'badly kept secret.' In the film, director
Julian Chomet uses footage of empty restaurants and hotels in the tourist
region around Lake Okhrid, shot out of season, to imply that the tourist
industry in Macedonia is in decline because of the impending trouble.
A sequence of a semi-destroyed building is supposed to show the devastation
in the economy; the shots are, in fact, of the old Skopje train station,
torn in half by the earthquake of 1963 and left standing as a monument
to the disaster.5
....Before the Rain, structured around a
mystical cycle of events where everything is bound for trouble, is another
manifestation of this syndrome. Director Manchevski seems to reject the
idea that all Balkan nations are doomed to succumb into a violent nightmare.
He, however, admits he made Before the Rain after he 'was struck by a
heavy, pervasive sense of expectation' during a visit to Macedonia in
1991. In an interview Manchevski said:
....I didn't want the film to comment on
any event or events happening right now. You see, I don't know enough
about the war. I haven't lived there for years. I wanted rather for my
story to be pulled out of those events in its style, music, and in its
content, too [...] What is important is that I do not mean my film to
be taken as a documentary of actual events (Manchevski 1995:E5).
....Critics, however, read the film differently.
According to Variety's Deborah Young (1994), Manchevski's approach was
to represent ethnic hatred as 'endemic to the region,' and according to
New York Times' Roger Cohen (1995), the film's circular imagery comes
about mostly because 'of course, war in Macedonia would be nothing new,'
and conveys 'a haunting evocation of a Macedonian society on the verge
of final fracture.'
....In Manchevski's film, Macedonia is depicted
as a medieval-feudal culture divided into the hostile ethnic-religious
camps of Muslim Albanians and Orthodox Macedonians where everyone who
tries to break the cycle of violence is killed by their own people and
from where violence spreads as far as a quiet London restaurant. The countdown
to the final clash has already started, slowly but securely turning into
an inescapable bloody conflict.
....Still, there is no war in Macedonia as
of yet, and the country has managed to maintain a good record in spite
of all the apocalyptic predictions.6 If, however, a conflict erupts, the
reaction of the West will most likely be: we know what these people are
like, we saw it in that film, and we have been expecting it to happen
for quite a while.
....Gazing at the Balkans.
....In a body of recent works historians
like Maria Todorova (1997) analyzed the 'Orientalist'-type construction
of the Balkans within Western perceptions.7 It was also recognized that
this construction was an on-going process that continued throughout the
1990s. What was even more important, it was recognized that the 'Orientalization'
of the Balkans could not be declared a purely Western project, as it was
a process which had been embraced, internalized and partially carried
out by consenting Balkan intellectuals. It was not just the West which
constructed the Balkans compliant to Western stereotypes, this construction
was also carried out by Balkan writers and filmmakers themselves. They
not only submissively accepted the semi-barbarian perception of the Balkans
but even made their own contribution to it. 8
....The classical cinematic example of this
willing self-exoticism in narrating the Balkans is found in Cypriot Michael
Cacoyannis's Hollywood adaptation of Kazantzakis's novel Zorba the Greek
(1964). The story is told from the point of view of a British writer (Alan
Bates) who is visiting Greece, and who comes across this incredible individual,
the flamboyant and colorful Zorba (Anthony Quinn). ....The
numerous challenges of Zorba's non-standard behavior are supposed to be
a learning experience for the Briton and to provide him with an opportunity
to re-evaluate his rigid Western attitudes. But it remains an on-looker
type of situation. The Briton is intrigued, but he is far from abandoning
his own ways which he 'sacrifices' only occasionally in order to 'adapt'
to the local mores.
....Today, the leading 'Balkan' narrative
configuration still relies on the brokerage of a Western narrator to validate
stories taking place across the troubled Balkan lands. In Winterbottom's
Welcome to Sarajevo (1996), the plot evolves around Western journalists
covering the Bosnian carnage. In Godard's Forever Mozart (1996) it is
a bunch of Parisian intellectuals who set out to reach embattled Sarajevo
and suffer in the hands of local thugs. In Petar Antonijevic's Savior
(1998) it is a Western mercenary witnessing the faults of all sides embroiled
in the conflict. Even Gadjo Dilo (1997), directed by Toni Gatlif who has
usually managed to tell stories about his Gypsy people without the need
of this narrative device, is structured around the journey of a young
Frenchman who ends up in a Romanian Gypsy settlement.
....While the preference for such a narrative
approach can easily be explained in the case of Western directors, one
cannot help noticing that it is also characteristic for Balkan directors
who willingly adopt the pattern. They find it natural to depict their
own cultures through the eyes of Westerners (or locals who have spent
sufficient time in the West, for that matter). In these films, the directors
constantly keep into account the foreigner's point of view, leaving the
Balkan people to be watched and judged by strangers. The 'otherness' of
the Balkans has not only been internalized by the directors, but has even
become a preferred mode of discourse about themselves. This results in
perpetuation of the Eurocentric gaze (Shohat and Stam, 1994) both through
the chosen narrative structure and through many basic textual elements.
Romanian Lucian Pintilie's An Unforgettable Summer (1994) tells the story
from the point of view of an Austro-Hungarian aristocrat swept away by
fate to a remote imperial outpost in the Balkans. ....Greek
Theo Angelopoulos's Ulysses' Gaze (1995) is told from the point of view
of an expatriate filmmaker who travels across the shattered Balkans in
a pensive and melancholic journey after 35 years in the West.
....Milcho Manchevski's Before the Rain is
another example of the readiness to cast a gaze at oneself as an exotic
object. His non-linear tale of today's Macedonia, filled with elaborate
twists in time and space, is told from the point of view of a displaced
native, Alexandar, a world-weary foreign correspondent who returns from
the civilized and rational West to his native village after eighteen years
of absence and encounters a world taken over by ugly and violent intolerance.
Through Alexandar's eyes, contemporary Macedonia is shown as a land of
tribal culture and medieval ethos. The movie depicts the growing hostility
between Albanians and Macedonians in a region with a mixed population.
At the end of the Twentieth century, the principle here is still an eye
for an eye. ....Time has stopped. There is
a lot of atmosphere - mystic Orthodox Christianity, chants, black robes,
humid monastery cells, candlelight among crumbling frescoes of hollow-cheeked
saints, old houses, nostalgia, the smell of homecoming - all permeated
with the scent of stalking danger. The story develops against a magic
backdrop that pulls together a deep starry sky, the blue waters of Lake
Okhrid, and the tiled roofs of Macedonia. A touch of magical realism breaths
impasse and decay: golden tobacco strings dry on the cracked walls, and
donkeys carry firewood for old peasant women. Only the state-of-the-art
automatic weapons in the hands of local scoundrels suggest that it is
a present day situation. Someone is stabbed, but the doctor is completely
helpless, and what is left is only the praying and moaning of women in
black kerchiefs.9
....Due to the very way the story is told,
Before the Rain asserts otherness. Once again the film repeats what has
been reiterated so often: nothing can be done to change the Balkan cycle
of self-destruction; the circle may not be closed but it is not open either;
there are no ways available here and now to solve the problems that destroy
this self-contained universe from within. Like the other 'Balkan' films,
Before the Rain is moving within a prescribed conceptualization mirroring
long standing stereotypes of the Balkans as enigmatic and attractive but
impossible to deal with.
....Conclusion
....Before the Rain was predicting that in
Macedonia things may explode from within, self-destructively. The local
militants in the film do nothing more than destroy their own people -
the Albanian girl is killed by relatives, and so is Alexandar. The violent
guy who terrorizes the restaurant in the second part of the film, presumably
a Macedonian and certainly a 'dark Balkan subject,' resorts to chaotic
shooting as an extension of his own helplessness.
....As a warning against the dangers of self-destructiveness,
Before the Rain certainly worked. The explosion was suppressed, at least
for the time being. As a prophecy that made such self-destructiveness
look inevitable, the film proved untrue. If things explode in Macedonia
after 1999, it will no longer be a self-inflicted damage but one equally
strongly triggered by the external catalyst of the ill-conceived and poorly
executed humanitarian intervention of NATO in Kosovo.
....Keeping in mind the fatalistic readings
which Before the Rain deservedly invited, I cannot help thinking of Popper's
distinction between verifiable and falsifiable statements. The film's
putative prophecy could not be verified. The currents of time falsified
it instead.
....Notes
....1 Research for this article was made
possible through grants from the Rockefeller Foundation held at the University
of Chicago (CHI), as well as from AHRB and University of Leicester in
the UK.
2 The film opens with a quote from Mesa Selimovic: "With a shriek
birds flee across the black sky, people are silent, my blood aches from
waiting."
....3 Vlada Petric, director of the Harvard
Film Archive, talking at the University of Texas at Austin, February 1996.
....4 Andrew Wachtel writes: 'if we look
at The Mountain Wreath through the prism of the 1990s, the conversations
between the Montenegrin Moslems and their Orthodox brothers look chillingly
prophetic' (Wachtel 1998: 49). Branimir Anzulovic extensively comments
on of Njegos's text and its reception over time as 'a call to genocide'
(Anzulovic 1999: 67).
....5 I am indebted to Victor Friedman for
some of these observations.
....6 As expressed by Macedonian media scholar
Dona Kolar-Panov: 'Not only is international expertise on the country
limited, but it is also derived from perceptions of its instability generated
by its proximity to the war, its ethnic composition and the plethora of
stories initially of a 'first Bosnia, next Macedonia' type, and more lately
of a 'first Kosovo, next Macedonia' type as the continuing conflict between
Albanians and Serbs is assumed to have similar consequences for Macedonia.
These putative predictions continue to be made despite the involvement
of the Albanian party in the coalition government, the number of state
ministers and deputy ministers of Albanian extraction, the existence of
affirmative action policies, and the careful attention paid to balancing
Albanian and ethnic Macedonian peoples in government posts' (Kolar-Panov
1999: 34).
....7 I am using the 'Orientalism' concept
not so much in Edward Said's original sense but rather in the way it was
adopted and modified in order to describe the Western construction of
semi-barbarian Balkans in the work of Todorova (1997) and Bakic-Hayden
(1995).
....8 These issues are discussed at length
in my article: Iordanova, D. (1998) 'Balkan film since 1989: the quest
for admissibility,' Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television.
18/2: 263-280.
....9 The popular perception of Balkan-specific
violence is associated with ethnographic particularities like dagger-piercing,
throat-slitting, or roasting on a spit. It is a face-to-face sadistic
violence involving blood, spilled guts, severed limbs, tortured and mutilated
bodies, one that is far from hi-tech approaches like sniper-shooting or
precision bombing. Contrary to these perceptions, all the killing in Before
the Rain is done with modern-day automatic guns. For some reason, however,
it is the fork stabbing that remains most memorable, maybe because it
fits into the established image.
....References
Anzulovic, Branimir (1999) Heavenly Serbia: From Myth to Genocide, London:
Hurst and Co.
Bakic-Hayden, Milica (1995) 'Nesting Orientalisms: the case of former
Yugoslavia,' Slavic Review, 54: 917-932.
Boj na Kosovu (Battle of Kosovo) (1989), film directed by Zdravko Sotra,
Yugoslavia: Belgrade TV.
Cohen, R. (1995) 'A Balkan gyre of war, spinning onto film,' The New York
Times, 12 March.
Decline of the Century: The Testament L.Z. (1994) film directed by Lordan
Zafranovic, Czech Republic/Croatia/Austria.
Un ete inoubliable (An Unforgettable Summer) (1994) film directed by Lucian
Pintilie, France/Romania: La Sept Cinema, MK2 Productions.
Forever Mozart. (1996) film directed by Jean-Luc Godard, France/Switzerland:
Le Studio Canal+, France 2, Peripheria Vega Film AG, Rhone-Alps Films,
Television Suisse-Romande (TSR), Avventura Films.
Gadjo Dilo (1997) film directed by Toni Gatlif, France: Princes Films,
Studio Canal+, CNC, Ministere de la Culture de la Republique Francaise,
SACEM.
In Continuo (1971) film directed by Vlatko Gilic, Yugoslavia.
Karakasidou, Anastastia (1997) Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages
to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870-1990, Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Kazantzakis, Nikos (1952) Zorba the Greek, trans. C. Wildman, New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Kolar-Panov, Dona (1999) 'Broadcasting in Macedonia: between the State
and the market,' Media Development , 3:33-40.
Macedonia: The Next Bosnia? (1995) film directed by Julian Chomet, USA.
Manchevski, M. (1995) 'Oscar-nominated 'Rain' to screen at Tulane. An
interview with Andrew Horton,' The Times-Picayune, 22 February..
Neighbors (1952) film directed by Norman McLaren, Canada: NFB.
Njegos, Petar Petrovic (1847) Gorski vijenac, Vienna.
Pred dozhdot (Before the Rain) (1994) film directed by Milcho Manchevski,
Macedonia/France/UK: Vardar Film Productions, Gramercy Pictures, CNC,
British Screen.
Predictions of Fire (1994) film directed by Michael Benson, 1994, USA/Slovenia:
Kinetkon Pictures.
Rosenstone, Robert A. (1995) 'The historical film as real history,' Film-Historia,
V: 5-23.
Le sang des betes (Blood of the Beasts) (1949) film directed by Georges
Franju, France: Forces et Voix de la France.
Savior (1998) film directed by Petar Antonijevic, USA: Initial Entertainment
Group.
Shohat, Ella and Stam, Robert (1994) Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism
and the Media, New York and London: Routledge.
Todorova, Maria (1997) Imagining the Balkans. New York: Oxford University
Press.
To Vlemma tou Odyssea (Ulysses' Gaze) (1995) film directed by Theo Angelopoulos,
Greece/France/Italy: Istitua Lice, La generale d'images, Sept Cinema,
Paradis Films, Basic Cinematografica, Greek Film Centre.
Wachtel, Andrew Baruch (1998) Making a Nation, Breaking a Nation: Literature
and Cultural Politics in Yugoslavia, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Welcome to Sarajevo (1997) film directed by Michael Winterbottom, UK/USA:
Dragon Pictures, Channel Four Films, Miramax.
What about Macedonia? (1994) film directed by Bob Gliner, USA.
Young, D. (1994) 'Before the Rain,'Variety, 12-18 September.
Zorba the Greek (1964) film directed by Michael Cacoyannis, USA: Twentieth
Century Fox.
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